Journal of Al-Tamaddun

William Montgomery Watt (1996), Islam: A Short History. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. 159 pages. [ISBN: 1-85168-205-8]

2024-12-29T18:23:31+08:00

This book review provides a critical analysis of a work by the orientalist William Montgomery Watt (1909–2006), a Scottish Emeritus Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies at the University of Edinburgh (1964–1979). The book under review is entitled Islam: A Short History, published in 1996. The author offers his own critical interpretation on how to define and foster a positive understanding of Islam for both his Western readers and his Muslim colleagues.

Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas’s Perspective on the Interpretation of Islamic Historical Sources in the Malay World

2024-08-28T21:04:33+08:00

The study of the Islamic history of the Malay world is related to the study of its historical sources. Nevertheless, researchers must enhance their comprehension of the study of historical sources, particularly in interpreting them. It is a matter of concern because most Jawi (ie. Malay-Islamic) texts and manuscripts contain knowledge that requires profound religious comprehension, particularly knowledge of divinity, tasawwuf, fiqh, and other Islamic knowledge. This textual analysis will, therefore, concentrate on the historical study of Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas based on his selected works. His perspective on the significance of Islamic knowledge and thought with arguments related to the matter will be explained. Also, his mastery of various fields of knowledge, including tasawwuf and Western philosophy, has enabled him to identify any confusion or errors made by orientalists in their interpretation of Islamic history as well as to dispel criticism regarding his authority as a leading contemporary Islamic scholar.

Islamic Reform and Young People in the Malay Archipelago in the Early 20th Century

2024-10-27T20:39:46+08:00

Islamic renewal was a movement in the Muslim world in the mid-19th and early 20th centuries. This movement and teaching began with the assumption that the Muslim world experienced a "collapse" along with the increasingly vigorous expansion of European colonialism into Muslim countries. At the end of the 18th century, Napoleon Bonaparte expanded into Egypt, which shocked the Muslim community in that country. In this context emerged the idea of Islamic renewal, which sometimes mixed or had aspects similar to Wahhabism, which was considered capable of solving problems in the Muslim world. The Malay Archipelago is a region that cannot be separated from the wave of Islamic renewal in the early 20th century. Islamic students in this region were influenced by many Islamic reforms while studying in Hejaz and Cairo. After they returned to the Malay Archipelago, they became influential clerics who spread the idea of Islamic renewal and opposed the teachings of indigenous groups and traditionalist scholars. These Islamic reformers came to be known as 'Young People'. The rise of the Young People is standard in the Malay Islands, especially Sumatra (Dutch Indies) and the Malay Peninsula (British Malaya). This article observes the emergence of the Youth and Islamic reform in the Malay Archipelago in the early 20th century. This article examines how the Youth and Islamic reformers interacted with colonial authorities, indigenous peoples, and traditionalist clerics. The method used in this study is qualitative, in which the author conducts an in-depth analysis of primary sources and elaborates on the historical context that occurred at the beginning of the 20th century. In this article, the author argues that the rise of Islamic renewal and the Youth cannot be separated from the emerging socio-economic structure in the Malay Archipelago.

Religious Rooting of Sacralization Phenomena in Human Thought: An Islamic Civilizational Perspective

2025-03-29T11:00:56+08:00

This article examines how sacralisation arises within human thought and practice, focusing on the Islamic tradition. It explores how core Islamic beliefs and principles (such as tawḥīd and intentionality in worship) imbue places, times, actions, and social norms with sacred significance. Drawing on Islamic scripture, prophetic traditions, and historical accounts, the study analyses the manifestations of the sacred in Muslim communities through space, time, ritual practice, and moral action. In Islam, external practices are inextricably linked to internal intentions (niyyah) and ethical values, forming a holistic system whereby spiritual ideals are expressed through daily conduct. While this sacralisation of life offers communal identity and moral guidance, the article critically examines how misinterpretations of “sacred” mandates have fuelled extremism. The article concludes that an Islamic perspective on sacralisation provides rich insights into the human quest for meaning, illustrating the dynamic interplay between faith, practice, and sacred experience within increasingly pluralistic societies.

The Role of Women in Islamic History: A Perspective on Family, Society, and Modern Challenges

2025-02-13T11:27:03+08:00

This study examines the social role of women in the family and society from a Qur’anic perspective, considering the challenges they face in reconciling professional pursuits with traditional maternal responsibilities, as well as the influence of modern feminist movements on the Islamic concept of the family. The research emphasizes that humans are created as God’s vicegerents on Earth, and this role establishes equality and responsibility for both men and women within the family and society, grounded in the normative principles derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah. The study combines a textual analysis of Qur’anic teachings with an empirical survey conducted among Muslim women in Kosovo to assess perceptions of feminism and its impact on family roles. Findings indicate a cautious and conditional attitude toward modern feminist principles, highlighting tensions between traditional family expectations and evolving gender dynamics influenced by education, employment, and social engagement of women. The results underscore the need for structured scholarly dialogue, educational initiatives, and contextually grounded approaches to integrate selected feminist principles without compromising the ethical and normative foundations of Islamic teachings.

Bridging Islamic Technological Heritage with Modern Innovations: Ethical and Practical Perspectives

2025-03-08T09:13:23+08:00

This study aims to analyse the role of technology in the Muslim society, particularly in the fields of education, health and banking. The study employs a secondary qualitative research technique where the literature is reviewed to establish the prospects and issues surrounding the adoption of modern technology in the Islamic context. As a result, themes are identified, for instance, the ethical issues of artificial intelligence, biotechnology and fintech in Islamic law. The study also underscores the important role played by scholars and Islamic institutions by explaining how growing technological advancements can be controlled to conform to Shariah. Analysing the historical contributions made during the Islamic Golden Age, the study compares the past achievements with the modern-day technological problems. It shows the way to integrate Islamic principles into technological advancement. The study is meant to offer a detailed account of how Muslims can embrace the use of technologies to enhance their lives while maintaining and upholding their belief system. Finally, the study ensures that the technology is incorporated in a manner that will be appropriate to the Islamic ethical standards while at the same time improving the society.

Al-Madrasa Al-Salihiyya Established in the Ayyubid Period: The First Institution in Egypt Teaching Four Madhāhib

2025-01-05T17:26:00+08:00

This article examines the architectural structure of al-Salihiyya Madrasa, built during the Ayyubid period in Egypt, and its place in the history of Islamic scholarship. Constructed in Cairo between 639-641/1242-1243 by al-Malik al-Salih, the last great sultan of the Ayyubid State, the madrasa holds the distinction of being the first institution in Egypt where all four schools of Islamic madhahib were taught simultaneously. The madrasa represents one of the unique examples of its period with its architectural structure, four-iwan plan, and separate sections allocated for each school of law. This research analyses the establishment process, architectural features, and institutional structure of the madrasa in light of the works of Ayyubid and Mamluk period historians, particularly Ibn Wasil and al-Maqrizi. The most significant feature of al-Salihiyya Madrasa is its institutional structure that enabled equal educational opportunities for all four Sunni schools of law. This structure later paved the way for the Mamluk state's practice of appointing separate chief judges (qadi al-qudat) from each school of law. Besides its educational function, the madrasa also served as a center for mazalim courts (courts of grievances) during the Mamluk period. Al-Salihiyya Madrasa, where prominent scholars of the period such as Izz al-Din ibn Abd al-Salam and Afdal al-Din al-Khunaji served as professors (mudarris), continued its educational activities until the Ottoman period. This article takes a holistic approach in examining al-Salihiyya Madrasa's place in Islamic educational history, its architectural features, and institutional structure, thus revealing its unique position among educational institutions in the medieval Islamic world. The multi-madhhab educational structure and institutional organization of al-Salihiyya Madrasa can serve as a significant model for contemporary Islamic educational institutions. Particularly, the madrasa's approach of accommodating different schools of Islamic madhahib and providing equal opportunities for each school can be inspiring for interdisciplinary studies and pluralistic academic environments in modern educational institutions.

Pluralistic Religious Societies and Cultural Crossroads in the Early Modern Sultanate of Tidore, Indonesia

2025-01-01T23:44:02+08:00

This paper presents a definitive account of the early modern Sultanate of Tidore and the process of cultural crossroads in Tidore from the 15th to 17th centuries. The researchers used the historical method to collect several primary sources and reconstruct the cultural history of Tidore. Tidore is one of the four pillars of civilisation in the Maluku Islands, locally known as Moloku Kie Raha. Tidore, along with the other islands in the North Moluccas, became the main producer of cloves, which were in high demand from foreign traders. During the early modern period, Islam exerted a growing influence, leading to a transformation of Tidorese political administration from a local system to an Islamic bureaucracy. From a geopolitical perspective, Tidore was determined to expand its territory and control trade routes in the Moluccas. It competed with Ternate for dominance. This rivalry directly resulted in the creation of a global political and trade network when the Iberians allied with both sultanates during the 16th century. Their arrival, accompanied by the Arabs, Chinese, Malays, and Javanese, transformed Tidore into a spatial space for cultural crossovers. Their encounter created the Arabic, Portuguese, and Dutch loanwords in the Malay-Tidorese language; the hybrid cuisine of hula-keta (baked sago); and the material culture of the Tidorese palace of Kadato Kie and the Iberian forts of Tahula and Torre.

Historical Analysis of the Malacca Sultanate on Socio-Economic Prosperity during the Reign of Sultan Mahmud Shah, 15th - 16th AD

2024-10-08T12:24:47+08:00

This study employs a historical analysis approach to examine the economic prosperity of the Malacca Sultanate during Sultan Mahmud Shah’s reign. Utilizing both primary and secondary sources, this research explores how the Sultanate’s strategic location, economic policies, and diplomatic relations contributed to its rise as a dominant trading hub in Southeast Asia. The analysis highlights the importance of contextual understanding, chronological progression, and multiple perspectives to provide a nuanced interpretation of the Sultanate’s impact on regional trade and politics. The findings demonstrate that the Malacca Sultanate, through strategic governance and cultural integration under Sultan Mahmud Shah, not only established itself as a critical economic and political power but also left a legacy that influenced the region even after the Portuguese conquest.

Sheikhdom among Muslims: A Historical Study of its Religious and Scientific Concepts during the Centuries (6-10 AH / 12-16 AD)

2025-04-24T22:09:52+08:00

In modern Islamic society, “Sheikh” generally refers to an elder, righteous, or knowledgeable person, with its meaning being self-explanatory. Historically, however, the meaning, especially in the context of the administrative structure of Islamic society in general during the Zengid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk reigns, varies widely from its modern context. Historically, “Sheikh” was used to designate administrative employees in society, especially in their capacity in the Islamic state, signifying their professional status within society’s administrative organization. In a modern context, this study aims at analyzing the nature and scope of their professional roles, specifically sheikhs, describing their job descriptions, importance, major scholars designated with such a status, as well as the Islamic families from which these scholars hailed within the general Islamic society. One major inference to be realized from such an analysis is that the sheikhdom comprised multiple professionals in society, especially those in science, due to its importance to Islamic society. Many Islamic families aimed to acquire such a status, with the inevitable goal of maintaining it in subsequent generations, for which they sought to provide their progeny with comprehensive Islamic studies, a necessary foundation to lead as sheikhs in society.

Carl Brockelmann and Fuat Sezgin in Islamic Heritage: An Analysis of Their Contributions

2024-12-25T21:03:09+08:00

The works of Carl Brockelmann and Fuat Sezgin are important contributions to the history of the Islamic heritage. Carl Brockelmann’s (1884-1956) Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, on the one hand, was a pioneer in the study of Islamic theology, history, and literature. His work provided a comprehensive overview of the intellectual and cultural developments in the Islamic world from its inception to the modern period. Brockelmann emphasized the importance of understanding Islamic thought and literature within its contextual and historical backgrounds. Fuat Sezgin’s (1924-2018) Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums focused on studying Arabic manuscripts with a methodology that combined historical and scientific approaches. Sezgin believed that studying Arabic manuscripts could provide insights into Islamic civilization's scientific and intellectual achievements. The contributions of Brockelmann and Sezgin have been instrumental in shaping the study of the Islamic heritage and continue to be influential in contemporary scholarship.

The Collapse of Islam in Granada in Radwa Ashour’s Thulathiyah Gharnatah: An Analysis

2025-01-08T11:34:07+08:00

Radwa Ashour is an Arab writer best known for her novel The Granada Trilogy (Thulathiyah Gharnatah) comprising Gharnatah (Granada), Mariama and Ar-Rahil (Departure) which centres on the theme of the collapse of Islam in Granada. This trilogy serves not only as a work of fiction, but also as a medium for studying history, exploring the relationship between literary texts and the historical facts. The aim of this research is to reveal the relationship between literary texts and history, as well as to uncover the historical construction of the collapse of Islam in Granada through novels. Employing a New Historicist approach, this research focuses on the dynamic interaction between literary narratives and historical discourse, demonstrating how history is interpreted and reimagined through fiction. The results reveal that Ashour blends factual and imaginative elements to reconstruct the historical context of Granada’s Fall. Identity conflict also appears as a central theme explored through the characters in this novel. Besides that, Ashour incorporates intertextuality in Thulathiyah Gharnatah, namely from the works of Amin Maalouf and Mahmoud Darwish, using them as analogies for a lost paradise. Her personal experiences, particularly in relation to Middle Eastern conflicts, also influence the narrative. A key aspect of the novel is its gender representation, which contrasts Islamic and Christian perspectives. Islam upholds the equality of men and women, while Christianity is depicted as a treating Muslim Women unjustly. Thus, Thulathiyah Gharnatah functions not only as a narrative of the fall of Islam in Granada, but also as a profound reflection on identity, power and society relations and gender.

Understanding the Rarity of Conversions Within the Bā ‘Alawī Community in Singapore (1980-2020s)

2025-03-27T11:37:35+08:00

Bā ‘Alawī Arabs have been credited for bringing Islam to the Malay world through its Ṣūfi brotherhood, the ‘Ṭarīqa ‘Alawīyya. Recent studies highlighted their role in conversions to Twelver Shī’a Islam in the region, specifically in Indonesia and Malaysia. Yet, Twelver Shī’a Islam in Singapore has taken a different trajectory, with conversions mainly within the Malay community. This paper seeks to explain the dearth of Singaporean Bā ‘Alawī conversions to Twelver Shī’a Islam. It was found that although there was a large pool of Bā ‘Alawī Shī’a converts in Indonesia and Malaysia, only two Singaporean Bā ‘Alawī individuals identified as Shī’ī. This study was inspired by Pickvance’s argument for the importance of seeking causal reasons to explain differences in comparable phenomena. It was done through in depth, unstructured interviews with eight contemporary Singaporean Bā ‘Alawī and non- Bā ‘Alawī scholars and individuals involved in disseminating Islamic knowledge in Singapore. Oral history interviews of three prominent Bā ‘Alawī religious scholars living in the 1980s and 1990s together with biographies of Bā ‘Alawī religious scholars were also analysed in this research. This paper puts forth five main factors that curb Singaporean Bā ‘Alawī conversion to Shī’a Islam: a strong network of Bā ‘Alawī scholars who monopolised Singaporean Islamic institutions in the 1980s and 1990s, their involvement in the creation of a unified Islamic curriculum in Singapore madrasah, their creation of home-based Islamic educational classes, the Singapore modernisation and secularisation agenda, and a desire to preserve their cultural identity through the Bā ‘Alawī Sufi order, ’Ṭarīqa Alawiyya. This paper argues against ignoring studies that have lack of numbers as they may offer insights into a nuanced understanding of the Muslim minority experience.

Stress Management in The Context of Heritage and Islamic Civilization: An Overview of Prayer as a Coping Strategy

2025-07-13T08:33:30+08:00

This study examines the Islamic concept of prayer as a coping strategy and its role in alleviating stress and anxiety during periods of crisis among Muslims. It highlights how prayer and related religious practices support the psychological well-being of Muslim employees, particularly in demanding work environments. The research analyses a range of religious coping strategies commonly adopted by Muslims to manage stress and emotional distress. In addition, it reviews existing literature on religiosity and well-being within the Muslim context, emphasizing the spiritual, psychological, and social dimensions of these practices. The study also draws attention to the growing Muslim population in contemporary societies, suggesting an increasing need for culturally and religiously sensitive approaches to employee well-being and mental health support.

The Role of Classical Poetry in the Development of Critical Thinking: Clarity, Accuracy, and Reflection in Rumi’s Masnavi

2025-02-04T23:30:49+08:00

This paper investigates how classical poetry, particularly Jalaluddin Rumi’s Masnavi, contributes to the development of critical thinking skills. It specifically analyzes the story of Moses and the shepherd to demonstrate how poetic narrative can serve as a medium for cultivating essential cognitive abilities such as clarity, accuracy, logical consistency, evidence-based reasoning, creativity, open-mindedness, and reflection. Using qualitative content analysis, the study identifies and categorizes these critical thinking principles within the text and explores their pedagogical implications. The analysis shows that Masnavi encourages readers to move beyond rigid dogmatism, promoting intellectual openness and reflective engagement through allegorical storytelling. The findings affirm that classical poetry is not only a vehicle for spiritual insight but also a valuable tool for fostering critical thinking in educational and ethical contexts.

Becoming Malay: Cultural Integration on Indian Muslims to Malay Culture in North Sumatra, Indonesia

2024-10-13T14:13:15+08:00

The cultural integration of Indian Muslims in Indonesia has been developing for an extended period and is proven by the cultural openness to accepting Malay identity. However, there is a significant scarcity of academic discussions specifically exploring this concept. Therefore, this research aimed to explore the combination process and different expressions of openness in Indian Muslim culture into Malay culture in North Sumatra. A total of three perspectives were examined, which included 1) the driving factors behind the formation of cultural integration in North Sumatra, 2) the type of cultural openness used by Indian Muslims, and 3) the pattern of combination in Malay culture. The method used was qualitative descriptive, and data were collected through in-depth interviews with Indian Muslim informants. Consequently, the results showed that Indian culture was highly friendly to understanding the local culture, advancing the integration process. Based on the extent of integration, it could be categorized into two types namely, semi-integration and total integration of Malay culture. Finally, the discovery served as a valuable agenda for preserving the different cultural heritage of the nation, promoting a sample for a balanced multicultural society.

Models of Positive Historical Islamic-Western Cultural Interaction: The Challenges of Practice in the Contemporary Context

2025-04-24T21:35:51+08:00

This article delves into the history of Islamic-Western cultural interaction and the challenges undermining such interaction in the contemporary context. The research reveals that history stands as a witness for a positive empirical legacy of interactions between the Islamic and Western cultures through translation, mutual scholarships and linguistic exchange, providing a unique model of cultural engagement. However, bias and the absence of a fair perspective remain major obstacles to Islamic-Western cultural interaction, hindering an objective understanding of reality. Similarly, the influence of the “ethnic civilisation” theory and the disregard for diverse spatio-temporal contexts present another challenge to a meaningful cultural exchange. The article emphasizes the significance of considering successful historical positive models of Islamic-Western cultural interaction that have embraced diverse cultural environments, fostering a meaningful strategy for addressing the contemporary challenges of cultural exchange.

From Immunology to ʿIlm al-Manāʿah: Toward an Integrated Framework of Science for Islamic Studies

2025-06-03T01:52:32+08:00

This article advocates for the integration of Immunology, which is conceived here as ʿIlm al-Manāʿah, into Islamic Studies. We examine how the fragmentation of knowledge introduced by secularisation has relegated natural sciences, including Immunology, to positivist paradigms, neglecting metaphysical dimensions. In contrast, the Islamic intellectual tradition is embedded in a Tawḥīdic epistemology, which affirms the unity of scientific and theological domains. By tracing the historical interplay between Islamic medicine and theology,ʿIlm al-Manāʿah can enrich the intellectual and psychological dimensions already addressed in contemporary Islamic Studies. We propose that Immunology, with its focus on the body’s defence mechanisms, is critical for exploring the often-overlooked biological aspect of the self. We outline a methodological and conceptual framework for integrating Immunology into Islamic Studies. By situating Immunology within a transdisciplinary educational model, ʿIlm al-Manāʿah offers a pathway to reintegrate scientific inquiry into the civilisational aspirations of Islamic intellectual tradition. Ultimately, this integration may train a new generation of Muslim scholars equipped to address contemporary challenges with both scientific rigour and theological depth. In doing so, it reaffirms an enduring Islamic educational legacy that views all knowledge as a means to better comprehend creation and the Creator.

Fostering Dialogue, Tolerance, and Religious Harmony in Indonesia through the Local Tradition of ‘Bersih Desa’

2025-01-12T00:16:51+08:00

This study elucidates the purpose and practices of the Sukodadi bersih desa tradition as a means of fostering dialogue and strengthening tolerance and harmony among religious communities. The researcher employs ethnography with a thick descriptive approach to interpret the meaning and explain the behavior of the bersih desa tradition as it unfolds. The research was conducted over four months, beginning before the tradition was practiced and ending after it was completed. The researcher interviewed village officials, interfaith leaders, cultural activists, and community members. This research aligns with Pierre Bourdieu’s theory that the bersih desa tradition serves as social capital in creating a path for interfaith dialogue without any party dominating, as stakeholders and social structures play equal and interdependent roles. Interreligious dialogue through the bersih desa tradition involves environmental cleansing, offerings at sacred sites, interfaith prayers, processions with mountain-shaped structures, and wayang performances. Its essence is to connect with God, ancestors, fellow humans, and nature. This practice strengthens its adherents while fostering the idea of shared ownership, as per Clifford Geertz’s theory, through religious rituals, art, and culture. Its contributions lie in strengthening tolerance and harmony among religious communities by forming emotional bonds and eliminating religious symbols.

The Manuscript of Imam Al-Baydawi in the Kosovo Archives: An Analytical Study

2025-02-08T08:08:37+08:00

It is a well-known historical fact that the Ottoman Empire was present in the Balkans for more than five centuries. This connection left a deep mark on the soul and life of the people of this region and in particular, on the people of the Republic of Kosovo. Such traces are found in written documents, architecture, art, culture, folklore, and tradition. Part of this cultural heritage, which has been preserved up to the present time, consists of the Islamic-Oriental manuscripts, which are kept in certain scientific and cultural institutions of Kosovo. A rich collection of this kind, which is of great value, is preserved in the Archives of the Republic of Kosovo in Pristina. Among the manuscripts that are part of this collection is a very precious Tafsīr (a commentary on the Qur'an) by Imam al-Bayḍāwī, which was copied by Haji Mehmet Begzade-Prishtina in 1697. Manuscripts of this type show the level of commitment of the early generations to Islamic teachings, and at the same time, they serve as evidence of the early civilization in our lands, as well as of the style and meticulousness of writing for something considered precious. The aim of the research, as can be seen from the time period in which the manuscript was written, is to shed light on the values it carries. The manuscript is considered highly important and represents first-hand research material for Islamic theologians, historians, orientalists, experts in Arabic paleography, Arabic calligraphy, and as well as for literary and cultural scholars in general. Therefore, it paves the way for other researchers to study it from different perspectives. The research method used for the realization of this paper will be mainly library research, which includes an in-depth analysis of the manuscript itself and the literature published by well-known authors related to the field of archiving and manuscripts, and particularly to the manuscript and its author.

The Existence of the Conseil Français de Culte Musulman in Bridging Interests of the Government and Muslim Community in France

2024-10-31T00:19:28+08:00

In recent decades, scholars have increasingly focused on the phenomenon of religious pluralism due to its perceived role in interfaith conflicts, while also recognizing its potential as a unifying force if managed effectively. The establishment of religious institutions as civil society agents, such as the French Council of the Muslim Faith (Conseil Français de Culte Musulman, CFCM), exemplifies efforts to preserve religious diversity. This study examines the CFCM's role in bridging the interests of the French government and the Muslim community. Various perspectives, including conflict, competition, and collaboration, are employed to analyze this issue. The research underscores the importance of collaboration, emphasizing that cooperation is essential for fostering harmonious relations between the government and the Muslim community. In democratic systems, religious institutions serve as critical elements in ensuring harmony amid religious diversity. Interviews conducted with CFCM officials, international institution representatives, religious leaders, community figures, youth leaders, and activists from 2016 to 2019 reveal the CFCM's significance in addressing governmental and Muslim community concerns. However, the CFCM faces challenges such as ambiguity regarding secularism, institutional crises stemming from internal conflicts, national identity crises, and the threats of radicalism and terrorism. These obstacles contribute to ongoing tensions, notably in cases like the hijab controversy and depictions of Prophet Muhammad. Effective dialogue emerges as a key strategy for the CFCM to fulfill its role effectively.

Reassessing the Role and Status of the Diwan al-Sadarat within the Mughal State under Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

2025-12-30T09:25:27+08:00

The effectiveness of the Mughal Empire’s governance in India was supported by the role played by each department or diwan. One of the important diwan was the Diwan al-Sadarat, which played a significant role in matters pertaining to religion and development. Although the Diwan al-Sadarat had experienced a period of decline especially during the reign of Akbar, the situation has been changed after Aurangzeb assumed leadership of Mughal Empire in 1658 as well as he had initiated efforts to consolidate this institution during his reign. Hence, this study aimed to examine the Diwan al-Sadarat’s role and position in the Mughal Empire’s governance during Aurangzeb’s reign (1658–1707). This qualitative study adopted the historical study approach and content analysis method for collecting and analysing data from primary and secondary sources. Findings indicate that before Aurangzeb’s reign, Diwan al-Sadarat’s role was not considered significant due to several factors, including the Mughal rulers’ policies that did not support the Diwan al-Sadarat’s function, and the limited involvement of religious scholars (ulama) in the Mughal government. In addition, this study also found that the Diwan al-Sadarat’s role and position improved significantly after Aurangzeb took steps to empower the institution. The Diwan al-Sadarat played a key role in advancing education and religious affairs through various initiatives during his reign, such as overseeing the development of India’s education sector, providing grants for educational institutions, appointing religious officials and managing the distribution of madad al-ma‘ash (endowments or stipends for religious scholars). This article offers a novel perspective by examining how Aurangzeb sought to sustain his authority through the institutional empowerment of the Diwan within his governance structure.

Civilizational Elements of Islamic Services (Khidmah al-Islām): A Historical Analysis of Its Role in the Development of Malaysian Society

2025-07-09T07:11:47+08:00

This article examines the core civilizational elements of Islamic services; conceptually defined as Khidmah al-Islām and their critical role in the development of Malaysian society. In this context, Islamic services are positioned not merely as a transactional industry, but as a communal obligation (farḍ kifāyah) executed by public agencies, the private sector, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). While these entities have successfully institutionalised religious obligations, there is a growing concern that an overemphasis on corporate governance may overshadow the fundamental spiritual ethos of khidmah al-Islām. Adopting a qualitative historical analysis, this study traces the evolutionary trajectory of these services. Findings reveal that the civilizational impact of Khidmah al-Islām follows a distinct path: commencing with the strengthening of faith (ʿaqīdah) as a social driving force in the early Islamic era, advancing through sharīʿah and knowledge integration during the medieval period, and culminating in the application of high ethical values in modern administration. This article concludes that to sustain holistic civilizational development in Malaysia, all service providers must reintegrate these foundational historical elements. This reintegration ensures khidmah al-Islām functions as a balanced mechanism, upholding professional efficiency while fulfilling the spiritual mandate of serving the ummah.